The finacial crisi of the French Revolution Essay Example For Students

The finacial crisi of the French Revolution Essay How Serious Was The Pre-Revolutionary Financial Crisis Between 1786-88, And How Significant Was The Clash Between The Notables And Calonne In FailingTo Solve It?On the twentieth of august 1786 Charles Alexandre de Calonne, comptroller-general of the royal finances, informed King Louis XVI that the state was on the verge of a financial meltdown. Whilst not having exact details to the financial figures to show the full extent of the problem, it is never the less recognized that France was in serious financial difficulty. What then did Calonne propose to sort this financial mess out? How was he to convince the King and the Notables that France was in financial danger and to give backing to his solutions? This essay will attempt to answer such questions by examining the financial crisis France was in and by looking at Calonnes proposals in which to solve it. We shall also examine his failure to convince the Notables and the steps to his acrimonious dismissal. We will write a custom essay on The finacial crisi of the French Revolution specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now First then lets look at the financial situation: according to Calonnes calculations the total revenue for France in 1786 would amount to 475 million livres. The problem was though, that expenditure would come to a total of approximately 587 million livres. That meant a deficit of 112 million roughly a fifth of the entire annual revenue. This rise in deficit was due to a huge increase in state borrowing since 1777. As a result of the huge amounts of money the state was borrowing there was also the huge rise in the annual interest and repayments that the treasury had to dispurse. Indeed since 1777, Calonne claimed that ariubd 1,250 million livres had been borrowed. A lot of this borrowing was due to financing the various wars that French kings of the eighteenth century were prone to fighting. The last one, French involvement in the American Civil War between 1778-83, had a crippling effect on the economy and was substantial in rendering it down to the situation that Calonne had announ ced to Louis XVI. What then did the comptroller-general propose to do? To be fair to Calonne he was not lucky enough to have a myriad of options for him to work with. For instance it would be natural to think that in a time of economic crisis, an increase in tax would be an obvious step- yet not so for Calonne. France was already regarded as one of the most highly taxed states in Europe, and the average Frenchman was already feeling the burden of the Kings borrowing. French taxpayers were already victim of the infamous vingtieme which had risen three times over the course of thirty years. Yet it ended in 1786, which proved costly for the government and was yet another factor which Calonne had to consider in his re-juggling of the states finances. Another possibility for Calonne, that again was mostly out of the question, was to reduce public expenditure and shift the economies. For a start this was effectively a long term solution to Frances financial problem yet the short term deb ts were due to be paid back from 1787 onwards. The military, if reduced, would save a lot of money, yet it would come at a time of unrest and tension in Europe. Plus with such a strong international position and reputation, cutting costs on the French army was a strict no. Even if Calonne were to trim the expenditure of pensions, public works and other economies it wouldnt raise even half the amount of money which he needed. There was also the possibility of declaring bankruptcy, but this idea was quickly shelved as it would mean more difficulties for the state to borrow again; and borrowing on such grand scales was the reason for Frances economic turmoil in the first place. As Calonne himself put it:All the funds were empty, all public stocks were low, all circulation wasinterrupted; alarm was general and confidence destroyed.1As we can see Calonne clearly believed that the economic situation in France was in dire straights when he came to power in 1783. He remedied the situation b y continuing to borrow huge amounts of money. The idea here was for short term plans to help stimulate confidence and the economy by investing in public work schemes and new military projects. Calonne raised approximately over 420 million livres from 1783-87. Yet he could hardly go on borrowing for short term investments when clearly what was needed were long term plans to help France recover. What was then the comptroller-general to do in sorting out this dire financial situation? Especially when so many options were closed to him. Calonne himself even stated to Louis:I shall easily show that it is impossible to tax further, ruinous to be alwaysborrowing and not enough to confine ourselves to economical reforms the only effective remedy to take, the only true means of managing finally to put the finances truly in order, must consist in revivifying the entire State by recastingall that is vicious in the constitution.2Put simply, Calonne had come to realize that the financial problem s of France were so extraordinary, that they were beyond financial problems. What Calonne proposed to do was to rework the entire state: all institutions had to be revamped in order to save France from her financial crisis. He believed that the state needed comprehensive organization as a result he felt it necessary to reform the economy, the government and possibly society in France. Calonne states in his document to Loius:The disparity, the disaccord, the incoherence of the different parts of the monarchyis the principle of the constitutional vices which enervate its strength and hamperall its organization; one cannot destroy one of them without attacking them all.3Calonnes plan for financial revival consisted of two main long term parts. Firstly, came his plan to increase the revenue. Calonne proposed to restructure the administrative in order to organize better the royal finances. He argued what was needed was a reworking of the tax system. As a result, Calonne proposed to abol ish the vingtiemes and replace them with what he called a land tax. This land tax was permanent (unlike the vingtiemes) and there were to be no exceptions in paying this tax as the clergy and privileged had enjoyed with the vingtiemes. Calonne had calculated that this would increase the revenue by 35 million livres. Calonne knew the possibility of the land tax not proving popular so he proposed that the people who would bear the weight of it (the landowners) a role in its administration. As a result local assemblies were to erected for assessing the distribution of the tax and for its role in public works. Calonne stated:One cannot take a step through this vast kingdom without encounteringdifferent laws, conflicting customs, privileges, exemptionsrights andclaims of all kinds; and this dissonance, worthy of the barbarian centuriesor those of anarchy, complicates administration, clogs its wheels.4It is clear that Calonne believed the administration needed evening out and the issue of privilege was costing the state. The next step in Calonnes plan was to stimulate the economy even further. He planned to abolish the internal customs barrier, the corvee ( in which an extra tax would be its replacement) and to relax the governmental controls over grain trading. .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .postImageUrl , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:hover , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:visited , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:active { border:0!important; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:active , .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ue73935487c05a1072d6995a314d6e73d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Parenting Children With Attention Deficit Disorder EssayBut as mentioned earlier, these were long term plans. Calonne also needed to find a quick short term solution in order to pay off government debts starting in 1787. His problem was that he needed to raise more short term loans on the basis that his calculated increase on tax revenue would provide the money in order to pay them back. Yet he needed to gain the confidence of the potential money lenders that his calculations were sufficient enough to restore order to the states finances. In order to do this, Calonne proposed what would turn out to be a huge misfire: he proposed to gather an assembly of Notables. This, hop ed Calonne, would gain great public support and hence install confidence in the potential loan lenders. This assembly of Notables and the clergy met for the first time in February 1787, and it was clear from the start that Calonne had miscalculated his ability to persuade the assembly he had especially underestimated the power of the clergy. The clergy were fiercely opposed to losing their place of privilege and the issue of the land tax, as well as being equally outraged on Calonnes proposal that the clergy should sell off some of its land and properties. Calonnes reasoning for this was that he believed the clergy would not be able to claim their tax exemption by justifying it helped the state by borrowing. Calonne boldly told the assembly:Yes, gentlemen abuses themselves constitute a source of wealth which the state hasa right to exploitThey are defended by self-interest, influence, wealth and ancient prejudices which seemed to be hallowed by time; but what are all thesecompared with the common good and necessity of the state?5It is clear from this passage that Calonne is totally against the idea of peivilege especially from tax exemption, which he believed was cost the state millions annually. Indeed, in his speech to the assembly Calonne refers to them as abuses and not privileges a clear indication of his view point. He continues by speech by agitating the assembly even further:Such are the abuses which oppress the wealth-producing labouring class: the abuses of pecuniary privilege, exceptions to the general rule, and so many unjustexemptions which can only relieve one section of taxpayers by aggravating the condition of the others.6What Calonne is proposing during this speech is quite extraordinary for the Notables. We can see here that Calonne is not holding back when he told Loius that to fix the financial crisis it would take a complete reworking of the administration and the way of society itself. Essentially, calonne was proposing a radical chang e to sort the financial problems out; arguably the assembly were not quite sure of what to make at such changes. In his speech Calonne talks about the abolishing of the corvee and the plans to introduce free grain trading, as well as placing emphasis on the issue of the land tax. Calonne stated:Next His Majesty brought all his personal attention to bear on establishing thesame principle of uniformityin the distribution of the land taxhe recognizedthatthe vingtiemes, instead of being assessed as they should be on all the land inhis kingdom in true proportion to the value of the crop, suffer an infinity of exceptions which are tolerated rather than regarded as legitimatethat the results of this general taxserve only to demonstrate the offensive inequality between their various contributions.7In shorter words, Calonne was simply stating that the land tax would replace the varying vingtiemes as a more evenly distributed, fairer tax. Despite all of these proposals in his speech to the assembly, Calonne made one vital mistake. Despite claiming that loss of privileges could increase the revenue, and that a new fairer, more carefully monitored tax system was needed, Calonne failed to produce any accounts or figures on this so called financial crisis in which he was claiming. How could the assembly vote for such radical reforms when they didnt even have access to the accounts that Calonne was preaching about? Calonne realized that if were to persuade the increasingly obstinate and cynical assembly, then he would have to give access to the accounts declaring the states financial condition. The problem with the Notables was that they realized how bad the financial situation was, but they mistrusted Calonne and were sceptical of his solutions to the problem. Yet the Notables agreed on the issue of a more evenly distributed tax system; and they had no quarrel over free grain trading and the abolition of internal customs barriers. Yet they still had huge doubts over the issue of the land tax. It would be unfair to suggest that the Notables were simply in defence of their privilege or that the assembly was a mechanism in which to humiliate Calonne. The Notables did have genuine concerns over Calonnes proposals. They argued that Louis XVI could only ask for a limited, specific amount of money to meet the requirements. One Notable commented:The King does not have the competence to institute a percentage tax but to onlyask for a fixed sum to meet specific requirements. Such a tax could not be accepted by the parlements, who possess only a subsidiary and fiduciary powerin the absence of the Estates-GeneralAn Assembly of Notables which gave its blessing to the institution of such a tax would be exceeding its powers and would be dishonoured in the eyes of the nation.8It is evident here that the Notables are not merely acting on selfish grounds. Rather they do have great fears over Calonnes land tax proposa ls. Essentially, they see it as unconstitutional. Yet by now Calonne had dismissed such criticisms. Despite needing a large amount of support from the assembly to give the go ahead on such radical reforms (and not getting it), Calonne publicly claimed that the Louis was more than happy to see the Notables and Calonne embracing in such good cooperation. This outraged the assembly and was yet another foolish move for Calonne again shooting himself in the foot. He also refused to involve the Estates-General despite cries from the assembly for him to do so. Yet the issue of the land tax was still a burden even for Louis. Despite the opposition of the Notables, Louis still supported Calonnes plan fore the land tax. In a conversation between Louis and Castries, the King stated:but I disagree with and I have thought about it a lot: the land tax is the mostjust and least onerous of taxes.9Yet Castries does not share the Kings enthusiasm for the tax:But so many agreements, rights, even abuses have arisen that what would have beenjustice wo uld not so be today. The collection of a tax in kind would be impossibleand would cost a quarter of its yield.10Despite the opposition to Calonne and the land tax, Louis stood firm. Yet Calonne was going to increasing lengths in order to secure the vote on his financial proposals. His next move was to gain the backing of public opinion. If Calonne could not persuade the Notables then perhaps the opinion of the public could. The comptroller-general published a text on his plans for the land tax and provincial assemblies. He accompanied it with the Avertissement : a presumptuous piece which attacked the Notables. The Avertissement claimed that the Notables were acting out of self-interest by wanting to hold on to their privileges, rather than acting in the good of the nation. To insure it gained good circulation it was published free. Yet it was a complete disaster fro Calonne. The public totally ignored the issue over prilege and instead wound themselves up with, what they saw as, mo re tax for them. The public layed blame with Calonne himself for the financial troubles of France, as not so long before the miracle worker Necker had declared everything was alright when he was in charge of finances. A passage in the Avertissement read:People will pay more! Doubtless, but who? Only those who do not pay enough; they will pay what they owe as a fair proportion and no one will be wronged.11Yet, for the pubic they most likely read the first four words of the article and as a result refused to support a comptroller-general who was going to make them pay more. .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .postImageUrl , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:hover , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:visited , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:active { border:0!important; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:active , .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28 .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u9157802c7365e2725de9c040171b8f28:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Artifact Speech Sample EssayAs for the Notables they were outraged. For them it was the final straw. Calonne had gone to far with this pompous and inflammatory publication. In regards to the Notables refusal to give support to the land tax, Calonne wrote:It would be doing the nation an injustice and showing it a lack of understandingto doubt for a moment the coincidence between its desires and those of a kingwhom it cherishes and whom it sees animated solely by the wish to make hispeople happy.12This was quite a brave move for Calonne to take. And quite foolish as well: As he could not muster up the public opinion that he was banking on there was no way he could rely on th e Notables to support him. Calonnes credibility was torn asunder, and the Notables dutifully called for his resignation. This is evident in the following conversation between Louis and Castries:Castries: I do not know if your Majesty knows what is going on, the way in whichM. de Calonnes scandalous pamphlet (the Avertissement) has beendistributed throughout Paris and the indignation it has caused?Louis: Yes, I know: all that has been exaggerated. Castries: How can one exaggerate seditiously distributing it to all the cures of Paris and disseminating it amongst all the people? Would your Majesty not Be alarmed to see his subjects worked up against each other? I must warn Your Majesty that things are going to become more and more difficult forhim because of the increasing out cry against his controller-general.Louis: All that is the work of intrigue.Castries: What we must provide for, sire, is the debt of the stateI much doubtThat it can be done by the means M. de Calonne is employing.13Here we can see the discontent for Calonne from the Notables. It is obvious that the assembly is not going to solve the major issues of Frances financial crisis. Louis though, as is evident in his conversation with Castries, was reluctant to abandon his comtroller-general or his proposals. Louis faced a bombardment of people all recommending that Calonne be dismissed from his duties. Ministers, the clergy, the Notables, members of the royal fami ly all persuaded Louis to denounce Calonne. In the end Louis had to face either losing his comptroller-general, whom had managed to persuade the king with a series of blistering economic reforms, or the Notables. Louis opted that it was better to keep the Notables on his side and as a result dismissed Charles Alexandre de Calonne as comptroller-general. Yet there still remained the proverbial headache of a financial crisis. No problems had been sorted since Calonnes dismissal and the Notables (still demanding that the Estates-General be brought in to the equation) were increasingly losing confidence in their king. So to avoid royal bankruptcy and to regain the confidence and control of the Notables, Louis appointed Lomenie de Brienne first minister. As we can see the clash between the Notables and Calonne was a bitter divided one. But it could be argued that it was Calonne himself who brought his own downfall. Despite his daring, radical reforms to stimulate the French economy and avoid it from bankruptcy, Calonne made a number of errors in his summoning of the Assembly of Notables. First was his own misjudgement in being able to control such an assembley when his ideas were so radical and unorthodox. He underestimated the power of the clergy, and would have been foolish not to have for seen their disapproval regarding feudal rights and loss of privilege. Next came his ability not to listen to the constructive criticisms aimed at the land tax. Perhaps as this was the centrepiece of his proposals, Calonne felt insulted by the Notables whose only other solution, it seemed, was to involve the Estates-General. And then there was the Avertissement: a foolish publication that lay blame to the Notables for hindering the recovery of Fra nces finances. If only Calonne could have seen that the Notables were acting out of concern and not self-interest. He constantly used the argument of privilege against the Notables and in the end it backfired. All in all then I would argue that it was Calonnes presumption that lead to the impossible conditions of him and the Notables working together. Yet Frances financial problems remained and in just over a year or two it would arguably lead to the collapse of the Ancien Regime.

The 12 Olympians of Greek Mythology

The 12 Olympians of Greek Mythology In Greek mythology, there were 12 Olympians, gods and goddesses, who lived and held thrones on Mount Olympus, although you may run across more than a dozen names. These major gods and goddesses are named Olympian for their place of residence. Greek Names The canonical list, based on the Parthenon sculptures includes: Olympian Gods ApolloAresDionysusHermesHephaestusPoseidonZeus Olympian Goddesses AphroditeAthenaArtemisDemeterHera You may sometimes see: AsclepiusHeraclesHestiaPersephoneHades listed as Olympian deities, but they are not all regulars. Roman Names The Roman versions of the Greek names are: Olympian Gods ApolloBacchusMarsMercuryNeptuneJupiterVulcan Olympian Goddesses VenusMinervaDianaCeresJuno The alternates among the Roman gods and goddesses are: Asculapius, Hercules, Vesta, Proserpine, and Pluto. Also Known As: Theoi Olympioi, Dodekatheon Alternate Spellings: Hephaestus name is sometimes spelled Hephaistos or Hephestus. Examples: Iuno, Vesta, Minerva, Ceres, Diana, Venus, Mars, Mercurius, Iovis, Neptunus, Vulcanus, Apollo.Ennius Ann. 62-63 Vahl.From Plautus as a Source Book for Roman Religion, by John A. Hanson, TAPhA (1959), pp. 48-101. The 12 Olympians were the major gods and goddesses with prominent roles in Greek mythology. Although being an Olympian meant a throne on Mt. Olympus, some of the major Olympians spent most of their time elsewhere. Poseidon lived in the sea and Hades in the Underworld. Aphrodite, Apollo, Ares, Artemis, Athena, Demeter, Dionysus, Hephaestus, Hera, Hermes, Poseidon, and Zeus are the names of the Olympian gods on the Parthenon frieze, according to the Oxford Dictionary of the Classical World. However, Elizabeth G. Pemberton, in The Gods of the East Frieze of the Parthenon (American Journal of Archaeology Vol. 80, No. 2 [Spring, 1976] pp. 113-124), says that on the East frieze of the Parthenon, in addition to the 12 are Eros and Nike.

Battle of Verdun in World War I

Battle of Verdun in World War I The Battle of Verdun was fought during World War I (1914-1918) and lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916. The longest and largest battle fought on the Western Front during the conflict, Verdun saw German forces attempt to gain the high ground around the city while drawing the French reserves into a battle of annihilation. Striking on February 21, the Germans made early gains until increasing French resistance and the arrival of reinforcements turned the battle into a grinding, bloody affair. Fighting continued through the summer and saw the French commence counterattacks in August. This was followed by a major counteroffensive on October which ultimately reclaimed much of the ground lost earlier in the year to the Germans. Ending in December, the Battle of Verdun soon became an iconic symbol of French resolve to defend their country. Background By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. Unable to achieve a decisive breakthrough, offensives simply resulted in heavy casualties with little gain. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. A fortress town on the Meuse River, Verdun protected the plains of Champagne and the approaches to Paris. Surrounded by rings of forts and batteries, Verduns defenses had been weakened in 1915, as artillery was shifted to other sections of the line (Map). Despite its reputation as a fortress, Verdun was selected as it was located in a salient in German lines and could only be supplied by a single road, the Voie Sacrà ©e, from a railhead located at Bar-le-Duc. Conversely, the Germans would be able to attack the city from three sides while enjoying a much stronger logistical network. With these advantages in hand, von Falkenhayn believed that Verdun would only be able to hold out for a few weeks. Shifting forces to the Verdun area, the Germans planned to launch the offensive on February 12, 1916 (Map). The Late Offensive Due to poor weather, the attack was postponed until February 21. This delay, coupled with accurate intelligence reports, allowed the French to shift two divisions of the XXXth Corps to the Verdun area prior to the German assault. At 7:15 AM on February 21, the Germans commenced a ten-hour bombardment of the French lines around the city. Attacking with three army corps, the Germans moved forward utilizing storm troopers and flamethrowers. Staggered by the weight of the German attack, the French were forced to fall back three miles on the first day of fighting. On the 24th, troops of XXX Corps were compelled to abandon their second line of defense but were buoyed by the arrival of the French XX Corps. That night the decision was made to shift General Philippe Petains Second Army to the Verdun sector. Bad news for the French continued the next day as Fort Douaumont, northeast of the city, was lost to German troops. Taking command at Verdun, Petain reinforced the citys fortifications and laid out new defensive lines. On the final day of the month, French resistance near the village of Douaumont slowed the enemy advance, allowing the citys garrison to be reinforced. Changing Strategies Pushing forward, the Germans began to lose the protection of their own artillery, while coming under fire from French guns on the west bank of the Meuse. Pounding German columns, French artillery badly bled the Germans at Douaumont and ultimately forced them to abandon the frontal assault on Verdun. Changing strategies, the Germans began assaults on the flanks of the city in March. On the west bank of the Meuse, their advance focused on the hills of Le Mort Homme and Cote (Hill) 304. In a series of brutal battles, they succeeded in capturing both. This accomplished, they began assaults east of the city. Focusing their attention on Fort Vaux, the Germans shelled the French fortification around the clock. Storming forward, German troops captured the forts superstructure, but a savage battle continued in its underground tunnels until early June. As the fighting raged, Petain was promoted to lead the Centre Army Group on May 1, while General Robert Nivelle was given command of the front at Verdun. Having secured Fort Vaux, the Germans pushed southwest against Fort Souville. On June 22, they shelled the area with poison diphosgene gas shells before launching a massive assault the next day. French General Philippe PetainGeneral Robert Nivelle30,000 men (Feb. 21, 1916) Germans Erich von FalkenhaynCrown Prince Wilhelm150,000 men (Feb. 21, 1916) Casualties Germany - 336,000-434,000France - 377,000 (161,000 killed, 216,000 wounded) French Moving Ahead Over several days of fighting, the Germans initially had success but met increasing French resistance. While some German troops reached the top of Fort Souville on July 12, they were forced to withdraw by French artillery. The battles around Souville marked farthest German advance during the campaign. With the opening of the Battle of the Somme on July 1, some German troops were withdrawn from Verdun to meet the new threat. With the tide stemmed, Nivelle began planning a counter-offensive for the sector. For his failure, von Falkenhayn was replaced by Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg in August. On October 24, Nivelle began attacking the German lines around the city. Making heavy use of artillery, his infantry was able to push the Germans back on the east bank of the river. Forts Douaumont and Vaux were recaptured on October 24 and November 2, respectively, and by December, the Germans had been nearly forced back to their original lines. The hills on the west bank of the Meuse were retaken in a localized offensive in August 1917. Aftermath The Battle of Verdun was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing, and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. After the war, von Falkenhayn claimed that his intention at Verdun was not to win a decisive battle  but rather to bleed the French white by forcing them to make a stand at a place from which they could not retreat. Recent scholarship has discredited these statements as von Falkenhayn attempting to justify the campaigns failure. The Battle of Verdun has assumed an iconic place in French military history as a symbol of the nations determination to defend its soil at all costs.

Assignment 5.2 Visual Argument Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Assignment 5.2 Visual Argument - Essay Example However, the dictionary’s definition gives more details because union is a multi-faceted term. The dictionary adds a few examples too related to different aspects of union. Formation of unions has been a common way to achieve common goals and objectives. Unions provide many considerable benefits to the members. Some of those benefits include achievement of goals, platform for raising voice, better working conditions, and better salary packages. There are different types of unions that serve their respective members. Some common examples of unions include labor unions, trade unions, and political unions. Labor unions are usually formed for getting better salary packages and labor rights. Trade unions are formed for getting better working conditions. On the other hand, political unions are formed for government formation, as well as for getting political benefits during

There is a large discrepancy in wealth distribution in the PRC. In Essay

There is a large discrepancy in wealth distribution in the PRC. In fact it has amongst the most unequal levels of distribution o - Essay Example This paper examines the implication of wealth inequalities in the PRC, particularly regarding individual’s way of living, education, housing, transportation, employment, and human rights for a citizen in the PRC; in relation to that, the paper will address whether people who are deprived access to these things can even be considered citizens. The paper will also highlight the effect of sexual, racial, and class discriminations on the patterns of consumption in the PRC and the manner in which the different social groups in China define and promote popular culture in the consumption patterns. As already mentioned, wealth inequalities have a very profound impact on individual’s way of living; generally, the large disparities between the rich and the poor in the PRC results to social inequalities since they deprive the poor access to most of the very basic yet fundamental social opportunities and services in life. For instance, the huge gaps between the rich and the poor in the PRC implies that the poor have been deprived access to decent lives with since basic needs such as food and shelter will almost always remain an elusive dream beyond their reach. Poor households in the PRC cannot afford daily provision, leave alone healthy dietary, and nutrition and they have to struggle for bare survival to see another day; apart from that, poor housing or lack of housing altogether predisposes the poor to harsh environmental conditions, which further aggravate their already worse condition. Housing projects in the PRC have been monopolized by the affluent and well-educated group that has the financial flexibility to live in those rich neighborhoods (Doray Demers 297). This implies that those without financial flexibility cannot access decent housing in decent neighborhoods like around Beijing (Tomba 1). Additionally, the poor cannot afford quality medical and healthcare, and are more likely to suffer even from simplest of all common treatable diseases. Poor n eighborhoods in the PRC have a disparity of healthcare facilities, and the least that are available do not even offer quality healthcare services either; Lack of quality healthcare and housing coupled with poor nutrition inevitably results to despicable living conditions. Apart from that, wealth disparities also deprive the poor access to quality education since it leads to unequal access to educational opportunities; whereas the rich can afford quality education for their children, the poor lag behind simply because of limited educational opportunities and high cost of education. Uneven wealth distribution also implies that some areas of the PRC are more developed thus have more education facilities that offer quality education than others, which are underprivileged due to disparities in wealth distribution. The rich neighborhoods in the PRC have enough schools, which provide enough opportunities for children from socially affluent families to access to education, unlike poor neigh borhoods that lag behind in development, thus have few congested schools that offer low quality education. In this respect, the limited access to educatio

Powerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston

Powerful Symbols in Their Eyes Were Watching God by Zora Neale Hurston       In 1937, upon the first publication of Their Eyes Were Watching God, the most influential black writer of his time, Richard Wright, stated that the novel "carries no theme, no message, [and] no thought."   Wright's powerful critique epitomized a nation's attitude toward Zora Neale Hurston's second novel. African-American critics read a book that they felt satisfied the "white man's" stereotype of African-American culture and the humor which Caucasians saw in that prejudice. However, those critics and most of America overlooked the wonderful use of imagery, symbolism, and thematic application of one African-American female's journey into womanhood and self-identification in a male-dominated society. Hurston introduced Janie Crawford, a strong, articulate, and dramatic character whose life was best empathized by women or by inhabitants of migrant farms and rural Black towns. Their Eyes Were Watching God is permeated with recurring symbols, such as a pear tree, a fence-gate, and Janie's hair, that enlighten a young girl's quest for self-fulfillment, as she discovers the true meaning of love and happiness through two failed marriages and one successful but tragic third.    The strongest symbol in Their Eyes Were Watching God is the pear tree. The pear blossom is a representation of Janie, as she is a young girl blooming into a woman during a spring afternoon. Hurston explains this symbolism at the first of the chapter, describing Janie as à ¬a great tree in leaf with the things suffered, things enjoyed, things done and undone. Dawn and doom was in the branchesà ® (Hurston 8) Janie then lies beneath the tree, observes the bees pollinate a blossom, and ex... ...ecade of prejudice against African-Americans, women, and most importantly, African-American women.    Sources Cited and Consulted: Donlon, Jocelyn Hazelwood. "Power: Spatial and Racial Intersections in Faulkner and Hurston."Journal of American Culture (1996): 95-110. Online. Internet. 8 December 2001. Available: http:vweb.hwwilsonweb.com/ Fetterley, Judith. "Introduction to the Resisting Reader: a Feminist Approach to American Fiction." The Critical Tradition: Classic Texts and Contemporary Trends. Ed. David H. Richter. Boston: Bedford books, 1998. 991-998. Hurston, Zora Neale. Their Eyes Were Watching God. New York: Perennial Classics, 1990. Jacobs, Karen. "From 'Spy-glass' to Horizon: Tracking the Anthropological Gaze in Zora Neale Hurston." Novel (1997): 329-60. Online. Internet. 8 December 2001. Available: http:vweb.hwwilsonweb.com/

The use of teacher questions in learning and teaching

IntroductionQuestioning is one of the most of import accomplishments in effectual instruction. Through oppugning a instructor can assist pupils organize relationships, guarantee success, bring on the engagement of inattentive pupils, and enhance pupils ‘ self-pride ( Eggen & A ; Kauchak, 1996, P40 ) . Research workers overwhelmed with oppugning techniques highlighted the importance of oppugning in learning as an effectual tool in learning. A inquiry is defined as: â€Å" any sentence that has an interrogative signifier † ( Cotton, Undated ) . In a schoolroom, the instructor ‘s inquiries are meant to be a tool intended to pass on the content elements to be learned and the instructions for what they are expected to make and the mode to make it. ( Cotton, ( Undated ) . Aschner ( 1961 ) cited in. Gall ( 1970 ) , for illustration, called the instructor â€Å" a professional inquiry shaper † and claimed that inquiring inquiries is one of the basic ways by which the instructors stimulated pupils believing and acquisition. Purpose: This paper is an effort to look into the usage of the different types of inquiries inside the schoolroom in relation to the cognitive theories. Background and significance: This survey is conducted at Fujairah Institute of Nursing ( ION ) .This institute is one out of three institutes from the Ministry of Health ( MOH ) in the United Arab Emirates ( UAE ) , which are learning nursing sheepskin for local and expatriates. There are three degrees of pupils ; these are diploma one ( DI ) , diploma two ( DII ) , and sheepskin three ( DIII ) . At Fujairah ION, there are 13 instructors ; some of them are Bachelors ‘ grade holders while others are master prepared. The experience of the instructors ranges between two to fifteen old ages. The instructors normally apply two methods of learning harmonizing to the ION policy ; these are Lecture Based and Case Based instruction. The admittance standards of credence of pupils emphasize that pupils must go through the high school with an norm of 70 % in the scientific watercourse. All classs are taught in English. On the footing of my personal instruction experience in the nursing field for the last 10 old ages, seven of them as a senior nursing coach at the ION – MOH – UAE. I have noticed that good inquiring technique is indispensable in the development of pupil ‘s apprehension and critical thought. Furthermore, the chief end of the ION is to develop long life scholar through the usage of Case Based Learning Method and synergistic Lecture Based Method where the instructor showered the pupils with different types of inquiries to ease the treatment in the schoolroom. This could non go on efficaciously if the facilitators have no inquiring technique. Furthermore, because of my personal involvement in bettering the quality of instruction and oppugning technique in ION, and since cipher has investigated the impact of good oppugning on pupil ‘s apprehension. I feel the impulse to analyze the part of this facet to the acquisition procedure. The consequence is expected to br ing out the degree of oppugning ( high- order, low order ) and the consequence of inquiries on pupils ‘ comprehension. Literature reappraisal The usage of oppugning helps instructors to analyze scholars ‘ comprehension. Questioning is besides utile for scholars as it encourages battle and focuses their thought on cardinal constructs and thoughts. Good learning involves how to inquire inquiries for maximal consequence. Some instructors ‘ inquiries are low cognitive 1s that ask pupils to give background information that they already have. Such inquiries have assorted advantages ( 1994, Airasian, et Al ) cited in Omrod, J, E. ( 2007 ) ( P475 ) .First, oppugning gives us an apprehension of the pupils ‘ old cognition and wrong thoughts about atopic. Second, they tend to look after pupils ‘ concentration on the lesson advancement. Third, they help us measure whether pupils are larning hard stuff efficaciously or are puzzled about peculiar accent. Fourth, they give pupils the opportunity to detect their apprehension. Finally, inquiries about the earlier erudite information promote reappraisal of the stuff, which should further greater recollection afterwards. Another type of inquiries is the high cognitive inquiries – those that entail the pupils to believe critically beyond what they have learned ( Minstrell and Stimpsen, 1996 ; Progrow and Londer 1994 ) cited in Omrod, J, E. ( 2007 ) ( P475 ) . Using the higher- degree inquiries help pupils to believe of their ain illustrations of ideas, use new criterions to work out a job or speculate about possible reading of cause & A ; effects relationship and to advance critical thought. One of the basic theories in oppugning was reflected in Benjamin Bloom ‘s taxonomy ( 1956 ) who builds a system of classs of larning behaviour to assist us in planing and measuring educational acquisition. The taxonomy was ordered in grade of trouble from simple callback of facts on the lowest degree, through progressively more complex and abstract mental degrees, to the highest order making ( synthesis ) after being modified by his informer pupil Anderson ( 1994 ) . ( See Appendix E ) . An of import rule of Bloom ‘s Taxonomy is that each degree must be mastered before doing advancement to the following. The cardinal component of Bloom ‘s taxonomy is in its prompt that we want pupils to hold many degrees at accomplishments. Bloom found that over 95 % of the trial inquiries require the pupils to believe merely at the minimal degree. Teachers should be professional in the preparation of the inquiries and pay attending to their dictions as wide or narrow diction could restrict pupils ‘ response. Furthermore, instructors ‘ inquiries should be based on the cognitive degree of pupils instead than their classs. Piaget, another psychologist, stated that larning and believing involve scholar ‘s engagement. Knowledge is non strictly transmitted verbally but must be constructed and reconstructed by the scholar. Intelligence is good kept through assimilation and adjustment ; hence, experiences should be considered to give opportunities for assimilation and adjustment. Harmonizing to Piaget, scholars need to research, to pull strings, to experiment, to inquiry, and to seek out replies for themselves – activity is indispensable. Direction should be individualized every bit much as possible and scholars should pass on with each others, to challenge and discourse issues. Piaget considers instructors as facilitators of cognition – they instruct, engage and motivate pupils. Learning is much more meaningful when larning springs from their experiences. Consequently, instructors can utilize assorted types of inquiries to excite the scholars ‘ believing about abstract constructs taking into consideration their developmental degree since development precedes acquisition. Teachers should carefully be after their inquiries and move from one phase to another depending on the cognitive procedure of the scholar, Therefore, there should be a correspondence between the cognitive degree of instructors ‘ inquiries and the cognitive ability of the pupils ‘ replies. Harmonizing to Vygotsky ( 1920s-1934 ) , rational development takes topographic point in term of societal history and sociocultural background ( Luria, I 976 ) . That is, cognitive accomplishments and forms of thought of an person are non congenital factors, but are gained from interaction within his sociocultural environment. Vygotsky believed that larning takes topographic point when kids are working within their zone of proximal development ( ZPD ) . That is, the ZPD describes undertakings that a kid has non yet learned but is capable of larning at a given clip. A cardinal thought derived from Vygotsky ‘s impression of societal acquisition is that of staging ; the aid provided by more competent equals or grownups. Typically, scaffolding agencies supplying a kid with a great trade of support during the early phases of acquisition. The instructor should see prosecuting pupils at the upper degrees enthusiastically without overpowering them. Vygotsky considered that the instruct or as a scaffold that can assist the persons learn by seting his instructions and inquiries harmonizing to the kid ‘s degree of public presentation — is an effectual signifier of learning. Unlike Piaget, Vygotsky believed that larning returns development. Vygostyan psychological science ( Vygotskij, 1978, 1999, 2002 ) ; any cognition is based on a peculiar degree of abstraction. As a consequence, the proper usage of instructors ‘ inquiry even in the signifier of fact could take to abstraction which is contrary to Bloom. A considerable figure of research workers have studied the usage of inquiries in the schoolroom by the instructors and their findings were congruous. The figure and types of inquiries asked by instructors during the instruction procedure varies. Harmonizing to Gall, ( 1970 ) the usage of inquiries in the schoolroom over a 50 twelvemonth period reveals that the chief tendency has been the development of techniques to depict inquiries used by instructor. It is clear for pedagogues that inquiries play an of import function in learning. Aschner ( 1961 ) called the instructor â€Å" a professional inquiries shaper † . Flander ( 1970 ) cited in Gall, ( 1970 ) P3 ) stated that inquiring inquiry is one of the 10 major treatments for analyzing instructors ‘ behaviours in the widely used system for interaction analysis. Hastings ( 1912 ) cited in Gall ( 1970 ) P3 ) . An mean instructor asks 400 inquiries in a twenty-four hours, this means that most of the instruction clip is occup ied with inquiries and replies. Educators by and large see oculus to oculus that instructors should emphasize the development of pupils ‘ accomplishment in critical thought instead than in remembering facts. Harmonizing to Gall, Approximately 60 % of instructor ‘s quest on callback facts, approximately 20 % require pupils to believe and the staying 20 % are procedural. In another survey by Hussein ( 2006 ) , three instructors observed asked a sum of 782 inquiries consisting academic, non-academic, and pseudo inquiries in 16 observation Sessionss. The perceiver documented ( 526 ) inquiries, three hundred fifty four ( 354 or 67.3 % ) of these inquiries were in the academic class. The bulk of the academic inquiries were low-level ( 458, 87 % ) and the staying 68 inquiries ( 13 % ) were high-ranking. In the survey of Graesser and Person ( 1994 ) , 96 % of the inquiries in a schoolroom environment are instructors ‘ inquiries. In add-on to being rare and short, student inquiries are besides simple ( Dillon, 1988 ; Flammer, 1981 ; Kerry, 1987 ) cited in Graesser & A ; Person ) . That is, they are usually superficial, short-answer inquiries that deal with the content and reading of distinct stuff ; they are seldom high-cognitive inquiries that involve illations, multistep analysis, or the averment of critical judgement. Research Question: This paper is an effort to reply the undermentioned inquiry: What types of inquiries are used by the instructor? How different or similar are these inquiries to the researches findings? Methodology Design A descriptive survey design will be used to analyze the degree of inquiries posed by the instructors, based on the revised Bloom ‘s taxonomy of the inquiry degree. The consequences will be tabulated utilizing simple statistical analysis to advert some: Sums, and Percentages, Sample and Puting The research worker will carry on two Sessionss of observations in two nursing categories. These are: DI & A ; DII ; each category consists of 25 and 28 grownup pupils severally and learns through talk based method. They lie in the ( Formal operational phase of development ) harmonizing to Piaget. Two instructors will be observed are: first is a holder of a maestro grade in Medical surgical nursing, has an experience for two old ages in nursing instruction ; the 2nd possess a Bachelor ‘s Of Nursing Science, and has seven old ages of learning experience. The oppugning technique of the instructor will be assessed and evaluated through direct schoolroom observation in relation to the cognitive theory ( Bloom, Piaget and Vygotsky ) The revised version of Bloom ‘s taxonomy ( updated by Anderson, 1994 ) will be used as a process to measure the degree of oppugning. ( See appendix E ) The ethical considerations of carry oning this piece of research were carefully considered. Three consent letters were obtained from the Branch Manager every bit good as the concerned instructors. Procedure: 1. A missive will be sent to the principal to acquire permission for observation. ( Appendix C ) 2. A missive will be sent to the concerned instructors that I will go to their categories. ( Appendix D ) 3. The schoolroom oppugning observation clip will be 100 proceedingss, 50 proceedingss for each Class session.4. The findings of the survey will be compared with the consequences of the surveies done by Gall, 1970 ( The usage of inquiries in learning ) , Graesser and Person 1994, ( Question inquiring during tutoring ) and Hussein, 2006 ( Dimensions of Questioning: A Qualitative Study of Current Classroom Practice in Malaysia ) .Datas Analysis The figure and type of instructors ‘ will be counted and analyzed. I calculated the frequence of inquiries asked by the instructors and categorized them harmonizing to high cognitive order and low cognitive order based on bloom ‘s taxonomy. The per centum of the entire figure of inquiries was calculated to ease readability and comparing between two categories. Consequences Degree of inquiry Class I Class II Low Cognitive Remembering 25 ( 66 % ) 17 ( 63 % ) Understanding 10 ( 26 % ) 6 ( 22 % )92 %85 % Using High Cognitive Analyzing 2 ( 5 % ) 2 ( 7 % ) Measuring Making 1 ( 3 % ) 2 ( 7 % ) 8 % 14 %Sum3827Discussion: With regard to this figure of inquiries: The findings of this survey showed that the figure of asked inquiries ( C1 =38, C2 =27 ) falls in scope with the findings of the survey of ( Graesser and Natalie ) '30 to 120 inquiries per hr ‘ With regard to the frequence of low cognitive inquiries: It is obvious from the findings that the bulk of inquiries ( C1 =92 % , C2 =85 % ) prevarication in the low cognitive order. Compared to the findings of ( Gall. 1970 ) and Hussein ( 2006 ) who severally found that 77 % and 87 % of instructors ‘ inquiries are of factual type. The figure of inquiries which lie in low cognitive order is rather higher based on my personal category room observations ; even the inquiries asked at the higher degree ( C1 =8 % , C2 =14 % ) were non answered right by the pupils. Teachers were noticed to feed the pupils with appropriated responses which will non excite abstract believing but contrary to that recalling and memorisation will ; term to be the existent term fro eg. 1. Scaffolding Teacher: What is the consequence of pneumonic high blood pressure on the right side of the bosom? Students: did non react to the inquiry. Teacher Scaffold them: Could depict the pneumonic circulation. 2. Formal operational: How is the clinical presentation of right ventricular failure different from the left side ventricular failure? Students: No response Traveling rearward from formal to concrete was quoted in the undermentioned event: Teacher: What are the maps of the left and right side of the bosom? Although the instructor was inquiring inquiries at frequent manner there was no adequate attending to the degree of the asked inquiries ; most of the inquiry did necessitate recalling and rote memory acquisition. This is an indicant that either instructors are non good trained or the higher order cognitive inquiries are non decently formulated or the pupils are non good coached to react to such types of inquiry. Students ‘ readying plays a function in reacting to higher degree of oppugning. If pupils are non good prepared, they will non be able to group the indispensable subject of the asked inquiry and therefore they will non catch up the higher cognitive degree inquiries. Connection with learning Theories: During my schoolroom observations, I was able to happen a nexus between many of the instructor ‘s inquiries and the cognitive theories from illustration. 1. Vygotsky /scaffolding: – Teacher: what is the consequence of left ventricular failure on the cardiac end product? – Students: did n't react to the instructor and seemed confused. – Teacher gave them a intimation by simplifying the inquiries what are the determiners of Cardiac out? – Students answered: † Blood force per unit area, and contraction. – Teacher: What is the consequence of contract on CO? 2. Formal a Concrete ( Piaget ) Teacher: What is the principle behind dypsnea in platinum holding left ventricular failure? Students: did n't reply Teachers: ( moves to concrete ) What causes dypsnea? Student: lung upset Teacher: What is incorrect with lung? Recommendations: Teachers must be cognizant of the different degree of inquiries. Teachers should be watchful to the importance of effectual schoolroom inquiry technique in advancing pupil apprehensions. Training plan should be conducted for instructors. Students should be trained and coached on how to react to higher order inquiries. Teachers should be cognizant that even higher order inquiries could be misused to fall in the low cognitive order. Teacher should see that each pupil does non larn in the same manner. Teachers should excite all the pupils to inquire and take part in the treatment. Teachers should do certain that appropriate waiting clip is given to reply the inquiries sing the degree of the inquiry. Teachers should inquire inquiries that encourage pupils to utilize schemes and critical thought accomplishments. Contemplation: Good inquiring technique improves the apprehension of the pupils and accordingly the result of the cognitive acquisition when the inquiries match the cognitive abilities of the pupils. Consequently larning and cognitive theories should be implemented in the schoolrooms. Furthermore, the consequence of this survey supports the recommendations of Gall that instructors do necessitate in-service and professional development programmed to better their inquiring accomplishments. Furthermore, the findings of Gall and Hussein are prevailing in the current survey. There are no indispensable alterations from 1970 boulder clay 2010. The research worker noticed that the inquiries were non distributed every bit among the pupils even a considerable portion of pupils were non engaged in the treatment particularly in DII. This could be due to hapless or unequal readying of the pupils, although it is the duty of the instructor to excite all the pupils. Furthermore, there was a noticeable job in the question-answer waiting clip ; for e.g. the instructor gave 15 seconds for a low cognitive inquiry whereas a high cognitive inquiry was given 12 seconds. The great majority of the inquiries were administered by the instructors and pupils were non encouraged to inquire inquiries. Restrictions of the survey It is worthy to advert that the range of this survey is limited to two instructors of nursing in one school in an educational zone. Some variables like instructor ‘s readying which influence the oppugning accomplishments were non measured. Students ‘ readying and inquiries were non measured besides.